Causes of tuberculosis pdf

Finally, NTP should monitor the financial and social status of patients treated and intervene as early as possible to protect them from incurring these catastrophic costs. World Health Organization. Global tuberculosis report Geneva: World Health Organization; World Health Organization, Systematic screening for active tuberculosis: principles and recommendations.

Singh, M. Are treatment outcomes of patients with tuberculosis detected by active case finding different from those detected by passive case finding?.

Stracker, N. Risk factors for catastrophic costs associated with tuberculosis in rural South Africa. Lung Dis. Beyond UHC: monitoring health and social protection coverage in the context of tuberculosis care and prevention. PLoS Med. Madan, J. What can dissaving tell us about catastrophic costs? Linear and logistic regression analysis of the relationship between patient costs and financial coping strategies adopted by tuberculosis patients in Bangladesh, Tanzania and Bangalore, India.

BMC Health Serv. Google Scholar. World Health Organization, Global status report on alcohol and health Hogan, A. Tanimura, T. Financial burden for tuberculosis patients in low-and middle-income countries: A systematic review. World Health Oganization. Fuady, A. Catastrophic costs due to tuberculosis worsen treatment outcomes: A prospective cohort study in Indonesia. Walcott, R. Public Health 2 , 1—12 Ruan, Y. PubMed Google Scholar. Tomeny, E. Patient-cost survey for tuberculosis in the context of patient-pathway modelling.

Tuberculosis Lung Dis. CAS Google Scholar. Mudzengi, D. Health Policy Plann 32 4 , 48—56 Shewade, H. Active case finding among marginalised and vulnerable populations reduces catastrophic costs due to tuberculosis diagnosis. Health Action 11 1 , Muniyandi, M. Catastrophic costs due to tuberculosis in South India: Comparison between active and passive case finding. Rudgard, W. Comparison of two cash transfer strategies to prevent catastrophic costs for poor tuberculosis-affected households in low-and middle-income countries: An economic modelling study.

Wingfield, T. Defining catastrophic costs and comparing their importance for adverse tuberculosis outcome with multi-drug resistance: a prospective cohort study, Peru. Tricco, A. Moskalewicz, A. No clear choice between newcastle-ottawa scale and appraisal tool for cross-sectional studies to assess methodological quality in cross-sectional studies of health-related quality of life and breast cancer.

Harrer, M. Doing meta-analysis in R: a hands-on guide. Higgins, J. Commentary: Heterogeneity in meta-analysis should be expected and appropriately quantified. Olkin, I. GOSH—a graphical display of study heterogeneity. Methods 3 3 , — Prasanna, T. Catastrophic costs of tuberculosis care: A mixed methods study from Puducherry, India.

Nhung, N. Measuring catastrophic costs due to tuberculosis in Viet Nam. Association of tuberculosis with household catastrophic expenditure in South India.

JAMA Netw. Open 3 2 , e—e Poverty 7 1 , 3 Muttamba, W. Households experiencing catastrophic costs due to tuberculosis in Uganda: Magnitude and cost drivers. BMC Public Health 20 1 , 1—10 Yang, T. Factors associated with catastrophic total costs due to tuberculosis under a designated hospital service model: a cross-sectional study in China. BMC Public Health 20 1 , 1—13 Chittamany, P. Viney, K. Four of five tuberculosis patients experience catastrophic costs related to TB diagnosis and care in Timor-Leste.

Pedrazzoli, D. How affordable is TB care? Findings from a nationwide TB patient cost survey in Ghana. Health 23 8 , — Ikram, A. Is tuberculosis treatment truly free? A study to identify key factors contributing to the catastrophic cost of TB care in Pakistan. McAllister, S. Out-of-pocket costs for patients diagnosed with tuberculosis in different healthcare settings in Bandung, Indonesia. Gurung, S. The role of active case finding in reducing patient incurred catastrophic costs for tuberculosis in Nepal.

Poverty 8 1 , 99 Collins, D. Can patients afford the cost of treatment for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Ethiopia?. Beyond pills and tests: Addressing the social determinants of tuberculosis. Lu, L. Catastrophic costs of tuberculosis care in a population with internal migrants in China. Xu, C. Inequity in catastrophic costs among tuberculosis-affected households in China. Poverty 8 1 , 46 Mohsen Gadallah, W.

Assessing household catastrophic total cost of Tuberculosis and their determinants in Egypt: A cohort prospective study. You're much more likely to get tuberculosis from someone you live or work with than from a stranger. Most people with active TB who've had appropriate drug treatment for at least two weeks are no longer contagious.

HIV suppresses the immune system, making it difficult for the body to control TB bacteria. Tuberculosis also remains a major killer because of the increase in drug-resistant strains.

Over time, some TB germs have developed the ability to survive despite medications. This is partly because people don't take their drugs as directed or don't complete the course of treatment. Drug-resistant strains of tuberculosis emerge when an antibiotic fails to kill all of the bacteria it targets. The surviving bacteria become resistant to that drug and often other antibiotics as well. Some TB bacteria have developed resistance to the most commonly used treatments, such as isoniazid and rifampin Rifadin, Rimactane.

Some TB strains have also developed resistance to drugs less commonly used in TB treatment, such as the antibiotics known as fluoroquinolones, and injectable medications including amikacin and capreomycin Capastat. These medications are often used to treat infections that are resistant to the more commonly used drugs. A healthy immune system often successfully fights TB bacteria. However, several conditions and medications can weaken your immune system, including:.

Your risk of getting tuberculosis is higher if you live in, emigrate from or travel to areas with high tuberculosis rates. Areas include:. Without treatment, tuberculosis can be fatal.

As the framework suggests, health system goals include better health, financial protection, and user satisfaction. Personal health services and public health interventions should be organized to achieve an appropriate balance of equity including reducing out-of-pocket [OOP] expenditures and impoverishment of individuals and families , efficiency, effectiveness that is, the extent to which interventions are evidence based and safe , responsiveness, equity, and client satisfaction as perceived by the users of services.

This chapter is organized as follows. First, we provide a detailed discussion of the global burden of disease and clinical context, followed by a review of approaches to diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. The aim throughout is to approach TB through a health system lens and, in the latter part of the chapter, to provide recommendations for improving delivery strategies and strengthening health systems, including care, supply chain, and information systems. Because the current tools for combating TB are seriously inadequate, we conclude with sections on critical research and development and economic analyses of new interventions for diagnosis, treatment, and vaccines.

Throughout, emphasis is placed on data or modeling of the economic costs and benefits, where available, of current or possible future interventions to combat this disease. The chapter recommends moving toward active case finding in high-burden countries; greater investments in health systems; community-based rather than hospital-based service delivery; and greater support for research on new tools—that is, developing better diagnostics, treatment regimens, and vaccines.

Most of these approaches were included in earlier WHO policies, but were not emphasized. The current global TB strategy, formulated as the End TB Strategy, is the most comprehensive ever, with three major pillars: Integrated, patient-centered care and prevention Social and political action to address determinants of disease Recognition of the urgent need for research to provide new tools WHO a.

The four key health system functions represented in the framework are as follows: Governance and organization. The policy and regulatory environment; stewardship and regulatory functions of the ministry of health and its relation to other levels of the health system; and structural arrangements for insurers and purchasers, health care providers, and market regulators Financing.

The way funds are collected, funds and risks are pooled, finances are allocated, and health care providers are remunerated Resource management. The way resources—physical, human, and intellectual—are generated and allocated, including their geographic and needs-based allocation Service delivery.

Publication types Review. Children with TB or people with a TB infection that occurs outside the lungs extrapulmonary TB do not spread the infection. But in some cases, the bacteria infect the body but do not cause any symptoms latent TB , or the infection begins to cause symptoms within weeks, months or even years active TB.

This usually happens either within the first year or two of infection, or when the immune system is weakened — for example, if someone is having chemotherapy treatment for cancer.